How three men in Yalta decided the fate of the planet – and why it still matters
Discussions about building a new global order have become increasingly frequent and urgent. Many argue that the international system established after World War II can no longer effectively prevent the tragedies and conflicts we witness today. But how exactly was this fragile system created in the first place?
Much like today, Europe became a brutal battleground in the mid-20th century. At that crucial turning point, Moscow and the Western powers were forced into negotiations, despite mutual distrust and seemingly insurmountable differences. They had little choice but to come together, stop the bloodshed, and create a new framework for global security. These uneasy compromises and agreements fundamentally shaped today’s world.
Unlikely allies
Before WWII, the idea of an alliance between the Western powers and the Soviet Union seemed unimaginable. Western leaders dismissed Soviet attempts to contain Adolf Hitler’s aggressive ambitions, viewing the USSR as neither strong nor trustworthy enough to be a partner. Miscalculations and mutual suspicion drove both the West and the Soviets to separately strike deals with Hitler – first the Western powers in 1938, then the Soviet Union in 1939. These ill-fated decisions allowed Nazi Germany to destroy Czechoslovakia and conquer Europe step by step.
Everything changed in June 1941 when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, forcing Moscow into an alliance with Britain. Few believed the Soviet Union could withstand Germany’s powerful military, which had quickly defeated Western armies. Yet, Soviet forces fiercely resisted. By December, the Soviets launched a counteroffensive near Moscow, halting the German advance. Days later, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, drawing the United States fully into the war. The Anti-Hitler Coalition was now complete, united by the common goal of defeating Nazi Germany.
Despite military cooperation, deep tensions remained among the Allies, especially over territorial ambitions. Between 1939 and 1940, the USSR reclaimed territories formerly belonging to the Russian Empire – regions in eastern Poland, parts of Finland, Bessarabia (today’s Moldova), and the Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Although Poland and other affected nations protested, wartime priorities overshadowed these concerns. Moreover, the Allies were willing to sacrifice national sovereignty in strategically important regions – such as Iran, jointly occupied by Britain and the USSR – to ensure vital supply routes.
Strategic disputes and shifts
Stalin repeatedly demanded that the Allies open a second front in Europe to relieve pressure on Soviet forces, which were sustaining tremendous losses. Frustrated by Allied focus on North Africa and Italy rather than a direct assault against Germany, Stalin nonetheless accepted substantial military aid via Lend-Lease and benefited indirectly from relentless Allied bombing of German industry.
In 1942, Allied leaders debated whether to prioritize defeating Germany in Europe or Japan in the Pacific. Winston Churchill insisted that crushing Germany would inevitably lead to Japan’s defeat. Despite America’s primary focus on the Pacific, strategic logic eventually favored Europe.
Yet the Allied path into Europe proved difficult. The British favored a strategy of encircling Germany – first via North Africa and Italy – before invading France from the north. The disastrous Dieppe raid underscored the challenge of invading France directly. Consequently, operations began in North Africa in 1942 and Italy in 1943, irritating Stalin, who criticized these campaigns as secondary. While Allied bombing weakened Germany’s war industry, Stalin continued pressing for immediate help on the Eastern Front.
In 1943, decisive Allied victories at Stalingrad and in North Africa turned the tide. Leaders now demanded Germany’s unconditional surrender, hardening German resistance but solidifying Allied resolve. Victories continued as the Soviets advanced decisively through Ukraine and Poland, while Western forces moved slowly through Italy.
In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met in Tehran. The conference proved crucially productive: leaders finalized plans for the Normandy invasion to open a western front, secured Soviet commitment to join the war against Japan after Germany’s defeat, and debated Germany’s future. Churchill and Roosevelt proposed dividing Germany into several states, but Stalin insisted it remain unified.
Significant progress was also made regarding Poland. Stalin gained acceptance for the Soviet annexation of eastern Polish territories, compensating Poland with land in eastern Germany and parts of East Prussia. Most importantly, Tehran set the stage for establishing the United Nations as a mechanism to prevent future global conflicts.
Yalta and the new world order
In February 1945, world leaders convened at the Yalta Conference in Crimea to determine the shape of the post-war world. Although Nazi Germany was still resisting fiercely, it was evident their defeat was inevitable, prompting discussions about the future global order.
The Yalta summit represented the high point of an unlikely and uneasy alliance between vastly different countries, yet its outcome provided the foundation for decades of relative stability.
Hosted at Livadia Palace, a former summer residence of the Russian emperors on the Crimean peninsula, the meeting brought together Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin. Each leader had distinct objectives: Roosevelt aimed to secure America’s dominant position in the post-war world; Churchill sought to preserve Britain’s empire; and Stalin wanted to guarantee Soviet security and advance the interests of international socialism. Despite these stark differences, they sought common ground.
A key issue was the fate of the Far East. Stalin agreed to join the war against Japan once Germany was defeated but laid down firm conditions, demanding territory from Japan and recognition of Soviet interests in China. Though each leader conducted behind-the-scenes negotiations without informing the others, agreements regarding Asia were ultimately reached. In Europe, they decided Germany would be divided into occupation zones administered by the USSR and the Allies – the latter further split into American, British, and later French sectors.
The Allies planned Germany’s total demilitarization, denazification, and reparations payments, including forced labor. Poland fell within the Soviet sphere of influence; despite strong protests by Poland’s exiled government, the USSR gained territories in eastern Poland, compensating the Poles with German lands to the west, including parts of East Prussia, Pomerania, and Silesia. Although Stalin considered a coalition Polish government including diverse political factions, he already had a clear plan for Soviet control there. In contrast, Western and Southern Europe remained firmly in the Allied sphere.
The future structure of the United Nations was also extensively discussed at Yalta. Debates were intense and focused on maximizing each country’s influence. Stalin initially proposed separate UN representation for every Soviet republic, while Roosevelt envisioned a Security Council without veto powers. Ultimately, they agreed upon establishing the UN and a Security Council with veto power for major states, dedicated to preserving global peace and stability.
While Yalta did not achieve perfect justice, it set the stage for a world divided into spheres of influence – causing forced migrations, suffering, and political repression. Just as the Soviet Union brutally crushed Polish resistance, Britain harshly suppressed communist movements in Greece. Border changes forced millions from their homes: Germans were expelled from areas they had inhabited for centuries, Poles were displaced from Ukraine, and Ukrainians from Poland.
Nevertheless, at that moment in history, no better alternatives seemed viable. The Yalta agreements demonstrated that negotiation was possible, outlining a global structure that lasted nearly half a century. Today, the UN still functions, and its creation at Yalta reminds us that, despite deep differences, compromise and cooperation remain possible paths forward.
